What Is the Greenhouse Effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that helps maintain the average temperature level of 15°C on the Earth’s surface. In this process, the thermal radiation from Earth’s surface is reabsorbed by greenhouse gases and then radiated in all directions, which provides thermal regulations for all living species on Earth. Namely, the greenhouse effect is indispensable for life because, in its absence, the average temperature would be minus 18°C.

The Earth’s atmosphere is a gaseous layer that surrounds the planet and is retained by the Earth’s gravity. The light from the Sun, invisible ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths penetrate the planetary atmosphere, and oceans and land naturally absorb approximately 70% of this solar radiation. The rest is reflected in space, but the real issue is the radiation absorbed in our atmosphere. Greenhouse gases retain the radiation in the atmosphere, thus increasing the planet’s average temperature. 

While the natural greenhouse effect is essential for the Earth’s climate and all living creatures, the increased amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is a global issue that affects all living species. The CO2 released from the burning of fossil fuels, over time, accumulates and creates a so-called “insulating blanket” around the Earth, which traps the Sun’s heat in the Earth’s atmosphere and ultimately increases the average temperature. In other words, the release of CO2 contributes to the current intensified greenhouse effect.     

Which Gases Cause the Greenhouse Effect?

Greenhouse gases and the balance of the greenhouse effect depend on three factors: how much heat is absorbed, how much of the heat is re-radiated, and how much of it is in the Earth’s atmosphere. Gases that contribute most to the greenhouse effect are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and ozone (O3).

The gases mentioned above have different power of absorption and re-radiation, also known as global warming potential (GWP). The greenhouse gas’s ability to trap extra heat in the atmosphere relative to carbon dioxide (CO2) is most often calculated over 100 years and is called the 100-year GWP. Interestingly, methane is 23 times more effective, and nitrous oxide is 296 times more effective than carbon dioxide. Still, there is a substantially higher amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere than methane or nitrous oxide.

The greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere do not remain there indefinitely. For instance, the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere and the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in the water surface of oceans are in constant equipoise because air and water mix well at the surface.

Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases 

Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, human activities have changed the environment considerably. This includes increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The primary sources of anthropogenic greenhouse gases are burning fossil fuels, agriculture and forestry, cement manufacture, and aerosol emissions.  

• Burning fossil fuels

Scientists at NOAA Climate stated that carbon dioxide levels are considerably higher than in the last 800,000 years. Human activities add more carbon dioxide annually into the atmosphere than the natural processes can remove each year. For instance, in the 1960s, the global growth rate of atmospheric carbon dioxide was roughly 0.6 ± 0.1 ppm per year, and only half a century later, between 2009-18, the growth rate was 2.3 ppm per year (Blunden & Boyer, 2020). In a period of 60 years, the annual rate of increase is approximately 100 times faster than in previous natural increases, such as at the end of the last ice age 11,000-17,000 years ago.

The burning of fossil fuels has increased carbon dioxide levels from an atmospheric concentration of approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) in pre-industrial times to over 400 ppm in 2018. In other words, since the start of the Industrial Revolution, human activities have led to a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. With the current rate of about 2–3 ppm/year, by the end of the 21st century, carbon dioxide concentrations are estimated to exceed 900 ppm.

Suppose this trend of substantially increased carbon dioxide emissions, methane, and other greenhouse gases continues by 2100. In that case, the average surface temperature at the global level could increase by up to 4.8°C compared to pre-industrial levels (Lindsey, 2020). To stop this temperature rise, scientists suggest projects limiting the concentrations and keeping the temperature change as low as possible, preferably below +2°C. The limitations include cuts in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and extensive changes in the energy systems at global levels.     

According to the new International Energy Agency (IEA) analysis, the global energy-related carbon dioxide emissions rose by 6% in 2021, to 36,3 billion tonnes (IEA, 2022). This is the highest ever level, and the main reason for it is the strong rebound of the world economy after the Covid-19 crisis, which mainly relied on coal to power the growth and demand.

• Land use 

Significantly increased land use for agriculture, deforestation and other purposes are accounted for one-quarter of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2019). The primary sources of emissions are feed production (45 %), greenhouse gas outputs during digestion by cows (39 %), and manure decomposition (10 %). Also, the production and transport of animal products contribute to total greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, the increased utilization of wetlands and landfill emissions lead to increased methane concentration in the atmosphere.  

• Cement manufacture

Cement is the second most-consumed resource in the world, right behind water. Globally, more than 4 billion tons of material are produced every year. The process of manufacturing cement includes the heating of calcium carbonate, which results in the production of lime and carbon dioxide. As such, this industry is one of the major global emitters of carbon dioxide, emitting approximately 8 % of global carbon monoxide emissions (Lehne & Preston, 2018).

• Aerosols

The burning of fossil fuels has several side effects on the planet, including the small particles suspended in the atmosphere called aerosols. Aerosols can be released from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigeration systems and halons used in fire suppression systems. Along with the aerosols produced by human activities, several natural processes, including forest fires, volcanoes, and isoprene emitted from plants produce aerosols.

While the greenhouse gases lead to increased temperatures on the Earth’s surface, aerosol pollution can counteract the warming effect. For instance, sulfate aerosols are the product of fossil fuel combustion. This aerosol reduces the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth’s surface and thus causes a cooling effect.

Benefits of the Greenhouse Effect

While greenhouse gases contribute to global warming, at the same time, they are sustaining life on this planet. Besides regulating the temperature on the Earth’s surface, greenhouse gases offer a myriad of other benefits. Greenhouse gases block the harmful solar radiation from reaching the Earth’s surface. These gases act as a shield that makes the unwanted damaging energy reflect back into space. One of the most important greenhouse gas, ozone, absorbs the Sun’s harmful ultra-violet (UV) rays by 97-99 %. Without the ozone layer, the UV rays would penetrate the Earth’s surface, and long-term exposure to a high level of it can severely damage both animal and plant cells. The greenhouse effect also enables the planet to maintain water levels when it comes to water surfaces.

Sources:

Blunden, J. & Boyer, T. Eds. (2020). State of the climate in 2020. Bull.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2019). Land is a critical resource, IPCC report says. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved from: https://www.ipcc.ch/2019/08/08/land-is-a-critical-resource_srccl/.

International Energy Agency. (2022). Global CO2 emissions rebounded to their highest level in history in 2021. International Energy Agency. Retrieved from: https://www.iea.org/news/global-co2-emissions-rebounded-to-their-highest-level-in-history-in-2021.

Lehne, J. & Preston, F. (2018). Making concrete change: Innovation in low-carbon cement and concrete. Chatham House. Retrieved from: https://www.chathamhouse.org/2018/06/making-concrete-change-innovation-low-carbon-cement-and-concrete-0/about-authors.

Lindsey, R. (2020). Climate change: Atmospheric carbon dioxide. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved from: https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide.

For years, children worldwide have grown up memorizing the basic facts: there are seven continents and four oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic oceans. Until now. On June 8, 2021, the National Geographic Society published their article recognizing the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica as the fifth world ocean (Gibbens, 2021).

What’s in a Name?

Changes to world maps are usually made due to political agreements and modifications. For example, Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Swaziland voted to change its name to Eswatini. The Republic of Macedonia changed its name to the Republic of North Macedonia. These changes have political significance, in most cases for foreign policy purposes.

National Geographic geographer Alex Tait explained why naming conventions are essential: “Part of mapping the world is using place names and features that are in common use among people who are describing the world, and this gets into some other things other than geopolitical naming” (Gibbens, 2021). Tait highlights that despite National Geographic’s prominence in the mapping world, giving its official decree more weight, others have started to use the term “Southern Ocean”.

Limits of the Southern Ocean

While this recognition leaves a notable impression on geographers around the world, the Southern Ocean’s classification as an independent ocean has been contested amongst researchers for centuries. The debate stems from the connectivity of the Southern Ocean with the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The existing world oceans are characterized by their boundaries, which are established by continents. As there are no landforms to define the boundary of the Southern Ocean, it was thought to be an extension of these waters. While there are no physical boundaries defining the Southern Ocean, Antarctica is surrounded by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC); the world’s strongest ocean current (Flowers, 2021).

The ACC was formed approximately 34 million years ago when Antarctica split from South America (Gibbens, 2021). The current flows from west to east around Antarctica in a broad fluctuating band that roughly follows 60 degrees latitude south. According to an article written by Jennifer Flowers for AFAR, the ACC plays an important role in exchanging nutrients and regulating ocean temperatures. The Southern Ocean is distinct ecosystem as the ACC keeps the ocean waters at temperatures ranging from -2 to 10 degrees Celsius. This provides habitat to unique wildlife that cannot be found anywhere on the planet.

“New” World Ocean

Although this ocean, until recently, has not had an official name, it isn’t entirely new. Back in 2000, experts proposed boundaries for the Southern Ocean, but all the countries making up the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) could not come to a unanimous decision on how the Southern Ocean would be distinguished. To this day, the Southern Ocean is still not recognized by the IHO, but it is anticipated that this move by National Geographic will pave the way for international recognition.

The National Geographic Society’s map policy committee had been considering making this important change for years. The change aligns with the Society’s initiative to conserve the world’s oceans, focusing public awareness on a region in particular need of a conservation spotlight.  Alex Tait states “we’ve always labeled it, but we labeled it slightly different [than other oceans]” (Gibbens, 2021).

The National Geographic Society hopes that by drawing attention to the Southern Ocean, they can raise awareness and promote the conservation of this critical system.

Sources:

Flowers, J. (2021, August 26). Introducing the world’s newest ocean. AFAR Magazine. https://www.afar.com/magazine/the-southern-ocean-was-just-named-earths-fifth-heres-why

Gibbens, S. (2021, June 8). There’s a new ocean now—can you name all 5?. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/theres-a-new-ocean-now-can-you-name-all-five-southern-ocean

Do Wildfires Occur Naturally?

The answer is YES. Wildfires are a natural occurrence within some forest ecosystems; over recent years, the wildfires have become more extreme and widespread. Even in tropical rainforests, where fires are atypical, wildfires became particularly damaging, which is a worrying fact that requires a solution. The favorable conditions for more frequent, more extensive, and higher-intensity wildfires result from climate change. Therefore, researchers and governments must develop an efficient plan to manage these risks together.

Fires are a natural phenomenon that forests have evolved to withstand. Regardless of the degree of damage, forests in most cases re-grow. However, high intensity fires may cause such severe damage that the soil may take years or even decades to regenerate.

How Does a Wildfire Start?

The ignition of a wildfire depends on three elements: fuel, and oxygen. On a hot day, when drought conditions peak, a tiny spark has the potential to create a large wildfire across hundreds of miles of forest. As previously mentioned, wildfires can occur naturally from the sun or a lightning strike. Wildfires can also ignite from human error, such as lit cigarette butts, unextinguished campfires, improperly burned debris, and arson.

Re-growth Process

After a fire, pioneer species are the first to adapt to the changing landscape. The hardy plants undergo adaptations making them suitable to compete in the post-fire environment. For example, Blanket Flower seeds could germinate, take root after a fire, and remain viable in the soil for up to two years. As hardier species grow, they create the conditions needed for the species from the original forest to return. In some Canadian woods, the Aspens are among the first trees that return after fires, which allows the Black Spruce trees to take root in the shades. Eventually, the original species out-compete the pioneers and become dominant. As a result, the newly rejuvenated forest is like the one before the fire. The cycle repeats itself since the accumulation of leaf litter provides the fuel necessary for another fire.

Harmful Effects of Wildfires

Wildfires affect the entire ecosystem and have an immediate and long-term effect on the quality of the rivers, lakes, streams, and other water bodies. Additionally, the fire is devastating for the vegetation, and therefore the ground’s soil becomes hydrophobic and prevents water absorption. The inability to absorb the excess water leads to the transportation of debris and sediment into larger bodies of water. Furthermore, valuable, and essential waterways and resources are polluted with heavy metals from ash and soil: post-fire flash floods and stormwater runoff are the most noticeable consequence resulting from wildfires.

Wildfire’s impact on vegetation mainly depends on the temperature and time of year of its occurrence. For instance, small trees and plants on the forest floor are the most affected and often destroyed by wildfires, while the adult trees may survive when the fire does not spread into the tree canopy. The flames engulf many animal species’ homes and food sources and make them susceptible to diseases, fungus, and insect invasion due to reduced resistance and sometimes threaten their survival.

Poor air quality is another consequence of wildfire, both immediate and long-term. As forests burn, large amounts of smoke are released into the atmosphere. The smoke particles are made up of gases and water vapor that have the potential to travel great distances and pose a severe threat to human health. Smoke particles can easily enter the human respiratory system and become lodged deep within the lungs. This makes breathing difficult and puts stress on the heart.

The Ecological Benefits of Wildfires

While wildfires have immense destructive power, there are several ecological benefits to fires. Namely, some plant species require regular burns to spread their seeds and grow again. Fires effectively destroy diseases and insects that may harm the livelihood of plants. Also, fires remove the excess debris from the forest floor and allow the nutrients from sunlight to reach understory plants. Low intensity and controlled fires clear underbrush and prevent future fires from spreading.

The new grasslands created after wildfires provides food for grazing species. The continual cycle of life in ecology promotes growth and allows change in the ecosystems. As plants and vegetation die, new life begins, and the environment heals.

What Do the Numbers Tell Us About a Catastrophic Year of Wildfires?

The 2021 wildfire season involved highly damaging wildfires in multiple countries: Algeria, Cyprus, India, Israel, Russia, Turkey, France, Greece, Italy, Canada, Mexico, United States, Argentine Patagonia, and Australia. Notably, the wildfire season is substantially more prominent than in previous history. The historic droughts and heat waves strengthen the intensity and the scale of the fires.

According to the U.S. National Interagency Fire Center, 7.1 million acres were burned in 2021, compared with 10.1 million in 2020.

Scientists explain that the season of high fire threat is stretching longer and longer. Following the annual statistics, wildfires were primarily confined to four months. Recent years have proved that everything changes, and extreme fire threats are observed throughout the year. According to the statistics, by June 2021, close to 29,000 wildfires had ignited across the U.S., which is approximately 4000 times higher than average years. The drought, extreme heat, and reduced snowpack contributed to the severity and extremity of the fires.

Wildfires and Landscapes

Mega-blazes once were considered as a career highlight for firefighters. To deal with a fire that blackens more than 100,000 acres is a challenge that was a rare occurrence in the not-so-distant past. Still, many firefighters state that mega-blazes are becoming the norm and routine. During the summer months, fires of that magnitude occur weekly. As a result of record-breaking drought and unprecedented heatwaves, wildfires turn the landscapes into tinderboxes.

Fires deplete reserves, which has stressed the supply of firefighting resources. Intense fires require urgent action to protect the public, which in turn, raises the costs of emergency response. In 2021 alone, the cost of extinguishing wildfires in the U.S. was over $4.4 billion, according to the NIFC (U.S. National Interagency Fire Center), which is double the 10-year average for federal firefighting costs.

Strategies to Protect Ecosystems and the Environment

The extreme intensity of the 2021 fire season has raised the stakes. The catastrophic consequences forced governments to reassess their fire suppression strategies. Scientists from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) warned that current climate models show the continuing high trend greenhouse gas emissions could increase the risk of larger wildfires by six times in the next three decades.

Legislators have granted close to a $1 billion budget for wildfires prevention for the 2021 fiscal year and at least $200 million annually over the next 6 years. Additionally, NOAA’s budget request for the 2022 fiscal year included a $15 million increase for funding fire weather research that will give communities access to current weather models.

North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality’s (NCDEQ) Division of Water Resources has published a new edition of their wetland plant field guide. With funding assistance from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Guide to Common Wetland Plants in North Carolina¹ provides its reader with numerous visual aids and descriptions of hydrophytic plants found throughout the mountains, piedmont, and coastal plain of NC.

The introduction of the book describes the history of this field guide as the 2021 edition identifies over 100 more species than its original 1997 publication. The 2021 edition includes original illustrations by author and former NCDEQ employee, Karen Kendig. The introduction continues on to describe common wetlands that are found throughout North Carolina, a glossary of plant terminology, and helpful illustrations that describe plant and wildflower parts.

The guide identifies over 200 wetland plants in North Carolina which are separated into sections according to plant type. Each section includes a respective table of contents outlining the scientific and common name of each plant, and their wetland indicator status according to the US Army Corps of Engineers’ (USACE) National Wetland Plant List. Like many states, North Carolina is divided into two USACE Regional Supplements: the Eastern Mountains and Piedmont (EMP) and Atlantic Gulf Coastal Plain (AGCP). Each species outlined in the section contents are denoted with the wetland indicator status within the EMP and AGCP for quick and easy reference.

Each species page provides the reader with a black and white illustration, as well as field images of key identifiers for each plant. Along with these images, the species page includes a description of their desired habitat and range, leaf patterns, field characteristics, and other species that share similar characteristics.

This field guide covers trees, shrubs, ferns, monocot and dicot herbs, vines, and aquatic plants. What stands out in this guide is a chapter dedicated to common confusions when identifying plants found in North Carolina. To negate misidentification, the authors have provided images between any given species that share similarities and highlight key identifiers to look out for in the field.

NCDEQ has put an impressive amount of work into this resource which caters to beginner and expert botanists alike. A PDF and hard copy of the field guide can be accessed through NC Wetlands’ website: Common Wetland Plant Guide.

¹Gianopulos, K., K. Kendig, and M. Pyne. 2021. Guide to Common Wetland Plants of North Carolina. Published by the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, Division of Water Resources. 425 pp.

In June 2021, the EPA announced that once the Trump-era Navigable Waters Protection Rule (NWPR) was vacated, the lengthy process of undoing the NWPR is soon to follow. The EPA stated that they intend to restore the pre-2015 regulatory scheme and formulate a new waters of the U.S. (WOTUS) rule shortly thereafter. Undoubtedly, this means that EPA considers that both Trump-era and Obama-era WOTUS rules are histories and has clear intention to impose CWA to use the 2008 “Rapanos Guidance”. The Rapanos Guidance was issued by the Bush Administration following the Supreme Court’s decision in Rapanos v. the United States, 547 U.S. 715; 126 S.Ct. 2208; 165 L.Ed.2d 159 (2006). On November 18, 2021, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of the Army signed the proposed rule to revise the definition of “waters of the United States.” (1)

For many, this action seems premature. The nation found itself in a similar situation a few years ago, due to split decisions from federal judges over the Obama-era WOTUS rule. The impractical effect was more than obvious: 22 states were using the 2015 Obama rule, and 28 states were using the Rapanos Guidance. Regardless of whether the Arizona District Court ruling is overturned–or appealed, the practical application of the CWA will be confusing.

Intriguingly, the EPA issued a statement several days after the ruling, which is more debatable during a holiday weekend. Namely, Judge Marquez took the first arduous step by taking formal action to repeal the NWPR. In light of the Court’s opinion, “the agencies have halted implementation of the Navigable Waters Protection Rule and are interpreting ‘waters of the United States’ consistent with the pre-2015 regulatory regime until further notice.” (1). Another debatable topic is whether Arizona District Court has the authority to issue a nationwide repeal of the 2020 NWPR. This in particular needs to be considered since at least two other district courts have remanded the 2020 NWPR back to the EPA without vacating it. 

While additional documents and funds will be required to obtain development permits and meet important scheduling milestones for developers, Florida entities will face a further dilemma. The procedure requires permitees to get a U.S. Army Corps 404 wetlands permit and pay for any required mitigation. This could lead to confusion during the identification process regarding which regulatory definition of WOTUS the EPA or the Corps should use. Thus prolonging the permitting process.       

Once the proposed rule is signed, a formal rule adoption process follows. This process includes publication of the proposed rule in the Federal Register, solicitation of public comments which ended February 7, 2022, revisions (if there are significant comments received by stakeholders), and ultimately the final rule will be published in the Federal Register.

Once finalized by the federal agencies, this rule change has additional importance for Florida. The recently approved 404 Wetlands Program for the state of Florida allows up to twelve months to adopt changes in federal regulations. The specific case of NWPR in Florida may start as soon as the Spring of 2022. Such delegated federal programs entail further delays, and the inevitable litigation that most likely will follow may detain the effectiveness of the Rapanos Rule.   

Clients in Florida, who already have a Florida 404 permit or plan to obtain one, are highly advised to start with the process of authorizing activities. 

(1) https://www.epa.gov/wotus/current-implementation-waters-united-states