Category: Newsletter

What Is a Global Forest Transition and Can It Be Achieved in Our Lifetime?

Deforestation is a consequence of the increased need for agricultural land and timber harvesting. Increased population leads to an increased need for purposeful clearing of forested land. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) reported that over 230 million hectares of forests will disappear by 2050 if no action is taken by companies and governments (WWF, 2015).

Despite the commitments to curb deforestation, countries around the globe are far from halting and reversing forest loss by 2030, as pledged by 141 countries during the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow in 2021. The data available on the Global Forest Watch platform, managed by the World Resources Institute (WRI), shows that in 2021 tropical countries lost approximately 11.1 million hectares of tree cover (Weisse and Goldman, n.d.). Of the total tree loss, over 3.75 million hectares occurred in tropical primary forests, areas with the most biologically diverse ecosystems on the planet (Weisse and Goldman, n.d.).

It is estimated that about 57% of the world’s habitable land was forested at the end of the great ice age (Roser, 2022). Ever since, human activities have contributed to the massive reduction of forest area at the global level. According to a chart by Our World in Data, over the last 10,000 years, humans have destroyed one-third of forests, which means forested land area declined from 6 to 4 billion hectares (Roser, 2022).

By far, agriculture is the largest contributor to deforestation. Agricultural pollution has many different sources, such as agricultural residues, fertilizers, and pesticides, leading to contamination, environmental degradation, and species loss. In forested areas, the agricultural industry cuts down forests to make space for fields to grow crops and pastures to raise livestock.   

The End of Deforestation?

The beginning of voluntary commitment to restoring forests and croplands started with the New York Declaration on Forests. This non-legally binding political declaration grew out of dialogue among governments, companies, and citizens at the 2021 UN Climate Change Conference (UN, n.d.). Global leaders endorsed a timeline to cut natural forest loss in half by 2020 and strive to end it by 2030. Furthermore, the Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use was based on taking action to achieve the land use, climate, biodiversity, and sustainable development goals at the global and national levels (UN, n.d.).

Many countries succeeded in halting deforestation practices, while several countries have effectively turned it around. As a result, forests have started expanding around the globe. For instance, Indonesia, which signed both the 2014 New York Declaration and the 2021 Glasgow Declaration, experienced the most significant drop in primary tropical forest loss, with a 31% – nearly 1 million hectares, while Argentina (-52% or 77,000 ha), and Vietnam (-15% or 36,000 ha) experienced a decline of more than 30,000 hectares (Butler, 2021).

What Is Forest Transition?

Forest Transition is the reversal of deforestation to reforestation. Driven primarily by economic development, many countries started the process of moving from net loss to a net gain of forested area. Namely, off-farm employment is an effective solution to pull labor away from the agricultural sector while improving forest scarcity.

The forest transition process has significant variations across countries and regions globally. In fact, while some countries record a positive trend of reforestation, the consumers in these countries contribute to deforestation in other countries through transportation and import of goods. 

Technological progress helps accelerate the turnaround process of forest transition by reducing the demand for fuelwood and agricultural land. With the usage of fossil fuels, renewable energy sources, and nuclear power, demand for wood has significantly decreased. The use of alternative energy sources is coupled with the practical usage of existing farmland and achieving increased food production by a higher output per land area. Modern agriculture has allowed many countries globally to increase productivity and thus prevent land conversion from forest land to agricultural land. Innovative techniques have increased crop yields in combination with modern crops, fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation.

In addition to new technologies, policies and strict regulations are efficient complementation towards achieving the goal of global forest transition. Current deforestation policies include programs like REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation, and Forest Degradation of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). These initiatives provide financial support, strategies, and action plans for developing countries and farmers, with an ultimate goal to make the reforestation economically affordable. 

Can We Achieve a Global Forest Transition in Our Lifetime?

In the past, deforestation was at a high level, peaked in the first half of the 20th century, and since the 1990s, temperate forests have expanded in size. The world’s challenge today is to achieve the same succes

Suppose scientists, researchers, governments, and individuals engage in a joint action to decrease the demand for fuelwood and agricultural land. In that case, the chances of bringing deforestation in the tropics to seems feasible in our lifetime. Additionally, the world’s biodiversity could be successfully protected if we achieve the global forest transition. This opens the possibility of mitigating greenhouse gas emissions associated with deforestation. There is no universal method to bring deforestation to an end, but usage of modern energy sources, and effective conservation policies could prove to be a powerful duo toward global forest transition and forest expansion.      

Sources:

Butler, R. (2021). What countries are leaders in reducing deforestation? Which are not? Mongabay Environmental News. Retrieved from https://news.mongabay.com/2021/11/glasgow-declaration-what-countries-are-leaders-in-reducing-deforestation/

Roser, M. (2022). Humans destroyed forests for thousands of years – we can become the first generation that achieves a world in which forests expand. Our World in Data. Retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/global-forest-transition#:~:text=At%20the%20end%20of%20the,6%20to%204%20billion%20hectares.

United Nations. (n.d.) Glasgow leaders’ declaration on forests and land use. UN Climate Change Conference (COP26). Retrieved from https://ukcop26.org/glasgow-leaders-declaration-on-forests-and-land-use/

Weisse, M., & Goldman, E. (n.d.). Forest pulse: The latest on the world’s forests: World Resources Institute. Retrieved from https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends

World Wide Fund for Nature. (2015). Over 80% of future deforestation confined to just 11 places. World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved from https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?245370%2FOver-80-of-future-deforestation-confined-to-just-11-places#:~:text=The%20report%20builds%20on%20earlier,climate%20change%20and%20economic%20losses.

How Does Fracking Affect the Environment?

What Is Fracking— And Why Is It So Controversial?

Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, is a technique that involves the fracturing of bedrock formations by a pressurized liquid. Namely, the “fracking fluid” is a combination of water, sand, and chemicals injected underground at a very high pressure to crack open hard rock layers to release the oil and/ or gas trapped inside.

Fracking is not a new technique. In fact, this procedure began as an experiment in 1947, and its successful application followed a few years later in 1950. This technique for extracting gas and oil has become more widespread in recent years. In the mid-2000s, many companies discovered that the extraction would be cost-effective by combining fracking with methods such as horizontal drilling. This “fracking boom” has reshaped the energy landscape, especially in many states including North Dakota, Texas, and Pennsylvania. Since 2012, approximately 2.5 million jobs have been created worldwide on oil and gas wells, 1 million of those jobs are within the U.S.  

On the one side, fracking creates jobs, boosts manufacturing, and reduces the amount of coal used in other drilling processes. However, many opponents argue that this industry has lax regulations, increases air pollution, contaminates groundwater and surface water, and creates human health problems.      

How Does Fracking Work?

The procedure of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling to extract oil or gas is a complex process that involves several steps. The basic fracking operation begins by drilling a hole called a “wellbore” that extends up to the layer of gas-rich shale. The shale layer can be as deep as 5000 feet (approx. 1.5 km), and drilling can last up to one month. In this step, the well is lined with a steel casing to prevent groundwater contamination in the area. Once the drill gets to the shale layer, it slowly turns and starts drilling a horizontal well along the rock. The next step involves puncturing tiny holes in the horizontal section of the shale layer with a “perforating gun” loaded with explosive charges. The fracking fluid is then pumped into the well at extremely high pressure and penetrates through the tiny holes, which cracks the shale. The sand from the mixture holds the cracks open while the chemicals extract the natural gas and allow it to travel up the pipe. Once this stage is finished, the water and chemicals flow back out of the well and are adequately removed for disposal or treatment.

Via pipe network, the gas is shipped to consumers. Typically, a well has the capacity to produce gas for 20-40 years, a period during which thousands of cubic feet of gas each day are extracted. Depending on the geology of the region and the technology used, the process of fracking has many variations.                  

How Has Fracking Changed Our Future?

As previously mentioned, natural gas can be used as a substitute for coal. But, will this procedure outweigh the gains from using a cleaner fuel and minimize environmental damage?  

Fracking is a high-risk procedure, and its benefits do not outweigh its consequences. Why? There is a common misconception that natural gas is a cleaner alternative to coal. Coal produces harmful byproducts, including large amounts of soot compared to natural gas. Still, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that the carbon content of natural gas – methane is 34 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-year time scale. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that the global warming potential of methane is 21 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-year time scale (EPA, n.d.).

Fracking also poses a threat to the environment, starting with the fracking fluid. Based on the rock type and the specifics of the site, different chemicals are added for various purposes. For example, acids are used for dissolving minerals to ease the fossil fuel flow; biocides are added to eliminate bacteria; gelling agents are used to carrying proppant into fractures; corrosion inhibitors are added to protect the steel parts of the well. EPA identified 1084 different chemicals used in the fracking process between 2005-2013, including methanol, ethylene glycol, and propargyl alcohol, most of which are hazardous or potentially hazardous to human health, or their impact is unknown (Denchak, 2019).

Fracking also poses a risk to groundwater resources. The landscape in North America has been altered by directional drilling and high-volume hydraulic fracturing (HVHF) due to increased oil and gas production. Since 2017, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PADEP) has issued 302 letters to homeowners documenting incidences of presumed groundwater contamination from oil and gas development (Barth-Naftilana et al., 2018). At that time, there were 10,908 unconventional wells drilled in Pennsylvania. There are disagreements regarding the causes of water-quality impairments, which require additional observations to understand and resolve the issue.

Other issues tied to fracking include:

  • Wastewater disposal issues;
  • High water usage (EPA estimated that in 2010, approximately 70-140 billion gallons of water were used to fracture 35,000 wells in the U.S., which is equal to the annual water consumption of 40-80 cities, each with 50,000 citizens);
  • Contamination of drinking water (EPA linked fracking with local contamination of drinking water in many states, including Pennsylvania, Colorado, Ohio, and Wyoming);
  • Poor infant health (Science Advances published a study which found that babies born within half a mile radius of a fracking site have significantly higher chances of low birth weight and are more likely to suffer from poor health).
  • Habitat destruction (creation of fracking wells takes place at the expense of the destruction of local habitats; as a result of fracking, in Wyoming, between 2001 and 2010, the reduction of mule deer’s habitat resulted in a decrease of 56% of their population);
  • Earthquakes (According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), Oklahoma has the most induced earthquakes in the U.S., and 2% can be linked to fracking. In 2018, the state of Texas experienced the largest hydraulic fracturing induced earthquake with a magnitude of 4.0).

Technologies and Methods That Can Make Fracking Cleaner 

While fracking is not the most sustainable and eco-friendly replacement for coal, some technologies and methods can make this procedure cleaner. Traditional fracking systems operate with large quantities of water; therefore, usage of water-free fracking systems can gather the same results as using water. For example, gelled fluid containing propane, uses one eighth of the liquid traditionally required and pumps the liquid at a substantially lower rate. Another option is to replace freshwater with recycled water or brine. This switch will conserve fresh water and, at the same time, will reduce the water pollution caused by traditional fracking systems.

Fracking produces high amounts of wastewater, containing chemically treated water. Although the wastewater is shipped to underground storage facilities, the introduction of wastewater purification could reduce potential pollution and allows the water to be reused in the fracking process.  

Methane leaks are one of the primary concerns of fracking. The most effective methods in reducing methane leaks are using an infrared camera to detect leaks at fracking sites and replacing traditional pressure-monitoring pneumatic controllers with lower-bleed designs. Interestingly, an article by National Geographic indicated that replacing those controllers could reduce methane leaks by up to 35 billion cubic feet annually (Kiger, 2014).

Sources:

Barth-Naftilana, E., Sohnga, J., & Saiersa, J.E. (2018). Methane in groundwater before, during, and after
hydraulic fracturing of the Marcellus Shale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(27). Retrieved from: https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1720898115

Denchak, M. (2019). Fracking 101. Natural Resource Defense Council. Retrieved from: https://www.nrdc.org/stories/fracking-101

Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Understanding global warming potentials. EPA. Retrieved from: https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understanding-global-warming-potentials

Kiger, P. J. (2014). Green fracking? 5 technologies for cleaner shale energy. National Geographic. Retrieved from: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/140319-5-technologies-for-greener-fracking

Environmental Impact and Health Effects of Noise Pollution

What Is Noise Pollution?

Noise pollution is defined as exposure to elevated sound levels for an extended period of time that may adversely affect humans or other living organisms. Researching the effects of noise pollution on human health, wildlife, and environmental quality is essential for preserving the environment and improving human life.

Formerly, hearing loss was considered a hazard in certain job positions, such as aviators and boilermakers, and occurs due to aging (medical condition presbycusis) and after prolonged exposure to noise at the community level. Still, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) now recognize the harmful health effects of noise pollution. Namely, noise pollution is defined as “an increasing public health problem” by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Noise exposure can lead to various health issues, including hearing loss, headaches, extreme stress, sleep deprivation, high blood pressure, speech difficulties, decreased productivity, mental health effects, and general diminishment of overall well-being. Additionally, noise pollution impairs child development, and children living in areas with high levels of noise pollution often suffer from stress, memory impairment, and attention span (Berglund et al., 1999).

The air around us is constantly filled with different sounds. And yet, most people would not say that we are surrounded by noise, which is especially true for people living in urban areas. However, constant and persistent noise sources can be considered an annoyance, contributing to major consequences regarding human health and the environment.  

How Is Noise Measured?

The sound waves are air molecules vibrations carried from a noise source to the ear. Typically, the sound is defined in terms of loudness (amplitude) and wave frequency. Amplitude is the sound pressure level (SPL) measured in decibels dB. On average, the human ear can detect sounds in the range of 0 – 140 dB. The sound of 0 dB is a hearing threshold; ambient SPL in a library is approximately 30-35 dB (faint dB reading, whisper); 40-50 dB is the sound of moderate rainfall; and in a quiet room, the sound produced by dishwasher, alarm clock, busy street, vacuum cleaner, normal conversation is very loud, and in range of 60-80 dB; inside a moving bus, subway, lawnmower, shop tools, truck traffic the sound is around 85-90 dB and is described as extremely loud sound; building construction activities generate about 105 dB; amplitudes between 120 – 140 dB can cause pain, such as sounds produced by a jackhammer, jet plane takeoff, or amplified rock music at 4-6 ft.

According to WHO, exposure to sound levels lower than 70 dB is not dangerous to live organisms and does not have damaging consequences, regardless of whether the exposure to this noise level is long and consistent. Still, exposure for more than 8 hours a day to noise levels higher than 85 dB may be hazardous (Environmental Pollution Centers. n.d.).

Effects on Humans and Wildlife

Conclusions from the second report on environmental noise published by the EEA

According to a report from European Economic Area (EEA) indicates that in Europe, exposure to environmental noise, and in particular road traffic noise, is a widespread problem, with at least one in five people exposed to noise pollution levels considered harmful to health (European Environment Agency, 2021). Namely, 20% of Europe’s population is exposed to long-term noise levels that are harmful to the overall health, or in other words, over 100 million people (European Environment Agency, 2021). Unfortunately, projections show that due to urban growth and increased mobility demand, it is improbable that the number of people exposed to noise pollution with substantially decrease in the future. 

The report estimates that noise pollution contributes to 48,000 new cases of ischemic heart disease per year and 12,000 premature deaths (Peris, 2020). Additionally, approximately 22 million people suffer chronic high annoyance, and 6.5 million people suffer chronic high sleep disturbance. Aircraft noise accounts for over 12,500 school children who suffer from reading impairment (Peris, 2020).

Environmental Impact of Noise Pollution on Biodiversity

Noise is more than simple annoyance or inconvenience. Besides causing numerous health issues to people, noise pollution also impacts wildlife. A wide range of animals rely on sounds, including frogs, birds, bats, and insects. Noise pollution impairs an animals’ ability to use sound for communication, navigation, finding food, attracting a mate, or avoiding predators. Noise pollution is a highly severe issue for marine animals as well. Notably, species that rely on echolocation, such as whales and dolphins. Nowadays, the world’s oceans are polluted with powerful sounds from shipping vessels, seismic survey devices, coastal recreational watercraft, and oil drills. Naval sonar devices are the largest threat to these organisms because the sounds are deafening and can travel for hundreds of miles through the water. Moreover, since water particles are more densely packed than air, the sound travels faster in the ocean.  

Sonar, similarly to echolocation, sends sound pulses down into the ocean depths to bounce off an object and return an echo to the ship. The sounds released from sonar are approximately 235 dB, interfering with the ability of whales and other species to use echolocation. Research has shown that mid-frequency active sonar use has caused mass stranding of Cuvier’s beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris), Blainville’s beaked whales (Mesoplodon densirostris), and northern minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), in the Bahamas, in 2000 (Balcomb & Claridge, 2001).

Seismic surveying creates the most deafening sounds in the ocean. This process allows surveyors to discover suitable spots for drilling for fossil fuels. Large boats float over potential drilling areas and use “airguns” to detect oil on the ocean floor. The pulses occur every 10 seconds and produce a sound as loud as a jet takeoff. Surveying can last for weeks, and the sound can be heard at over 2,500 miles. As a result of these activities, marine species are unable to navigate through water. In 2002, 14 whales were found stranded in the Canary Islands due to sonar signals.

Institutions at the global level are working on solving this problem. In 2015, the United States Navy agreed to limit sonar changes in the U.S. The following year, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) introduced Ocean Noise Strategy Roadmap which aims to address noise impacts to aquatic species and their habitat. 

Noise Regulation and Mitigation: The Role of EPA

Under the Clean Air Act, the EPA established the Office of Noise Abatement and Control (ONAC) to conduct investigations and studies on noise and its effect on public health and welfare. EPA coordinated Federal noise control activities through ONAC, but in 1981, the Administration concluded that noise issues were best handled at the State and local levels. As a result, the ONAC was closed, and all of the primary responsibilities of addressing noise issues were transferred to State and local governments. EPA retains the authority to thoroughly investigate noise pollution and its effects on the environment and human health. According to the Noise Control Act of 1972 and the Quiet Communities Act of 1978, the EPA is also tasked with disseminating information regarding noise pollution, responding to inquiries on noise-related issues, and evaluating the success of existing regulations for protecting public health and welfare.

Sources:

Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., Schwela, D. H. & World Health Organization. (‎1999)‎. Guidelines for community noise. World Health Organization, Occupational and Environmental Health Team. Retrieved from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/66217

Balcomb, K. & Claridge, D.E. (2001). A mass stranding of cetaceans caused by naval sonar in the Bahamas. Bahamas Journal of Science, 5(01). Retrieved from: http://www.bahamaswhales.org/Stranding_Article.pdf

Environmental Pollution Centers. (n.d.). What is noise pollution?. Environmental Pollution Centers, Noise Pollution. Retrieved May 16, 2022, from https://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/noise-pollution/#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20World%20Health,85%20dB%20may%20be%20hazardous.

European Environment Agency. (2021). Noise pollution is a major problem, both for human health and the environment. European Environment Agency. Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/articles/noise-pollution-is-a-major

Peris, E. (2020). (rep.). Environmental noise in Europe — 2020. European Environment Agency. Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/environmental-noise-in-europe/at_download/file.

Supreme Court tees up wetlands fight that could cuff EPA [UPDATE]

This fall, Michael and Chantell Sackett will face the Supreme Court for the second time in their 15-year legal battle with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In January, SCOTUS approved to hear the Sacketts’ appeal to clarify how wetlands are considered jurisdictional under the “water(s) of the United States” (WOTUS) definition.

Sackett v. EPA

In 2007, the Sacketts received a compliance order from the EPA stating they had illegally filled a wetland on their property as they prepared to construct their home. The EPA determined the property was within their jurisdiction under the Clean Water Act and ordered that the land be returned to it’s natural, wetland state. The order also stated that their determination could not be challenged and the Sacketts had no right to use their property. In response, the couple went through the court circuits contesting EPA’s jurisdiction over their land and arguing that they were denied the right to due process. Their case ultimately made it to the Supreme Court in 2012, where the court voted unanimously in support of the Sacketts’ right to challenge the EPA’s order in court.

Implications for 2022

In late 2021, the EPA returned to the pre-2015 definition of WOTUS as they draft a broader rewrite for 2022. EPA has made prominent strides towards the releasing the draft rule, however, they have been urged by members of Congress and several stakeholder comments to postpone the release of the draft rule until the Supreme Court makes a final ruling on the Sackett’s appeal (Neeley 2022). EPA Official, Ron Snyder, stated that although the case will have legal implications for the new WOTUS rule, the EPA is determined to hear other personal accounts from farmers and landowners across the United States to make revisions to the draft rule (Neeley, 2022).

On April 11, the Sacketts and the Pacific Legal Foundation issued their opening brief on the merits for their appeal. The brief establishes their argument that the Significant Nexus Test (Rapanos v. Carabell, 2006) is an inefficient methodology for determining whether a wetland is a “water(s) of the United States”. They continue on in their brief to propose a two-step method in place of the Significant Nexus Test. The framework for their proposed method is as follows:

• Step one: is the wetland inseparably bound up with a “water”—i.e., a stream, ocean, river, lake, or similar hydrogeographic feature that in ordinary parlance would be called a “water”—by means of a continuous surface-water connection, such that it is difficult to tell where the wetland ends and the “water” begins?
• Step two: is the “water” among “the waters of the United States,” i.e., those waterbodies subject to Congress’s authority over the channels of interstate commerce?

This proposed methodology would have major implications for how wetlands are deemed jurisdictional under the Clean Water Act in the future. After this brief was issued, numerous agencies, organizations, states, and members of congress issued their own briefs on the Significant Nexus Test in support of the Sacketts. As these compelling briefs are issued by stakeholders, it will be interesting to see how the court will interpret their views in the case and if they will effect change in EPA’s WOTUS draft rule. Currently, the EPA has yet to issue their brief for the upcoming case.

Sources:

Neeley, T. (2022, April 22). Wetlands determination battle before Supreme Court Sparks Flood of Interest. DTN Progressive Farmer. Retrieved from https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/news/business-inputs/article/2022/04/22/wetlands-determination-battle-court

Neeley, T. (2022, April 27). EPA’s Snyder: Agency might release WOTUS proposal despite Legal Challenge. DTN Progressive Farmer. Retrieved from https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/news/business-inputs/article/2022/04/27/epas-snyder-agency-might-release

Sackett V. Environmental Protection Agency. Pacific Legal Foundation. (2022). Retrieved from https://pacificlegal.org/case/sackett-v-environmental-protection-agency/

Legal Briefs:

https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename=/docket/docketfiles/html/public/21-454.html

Are megacities safe for people to live in?

Population change and economic development are closely linked, and the growth and expansion of cities occur mainly due to the transition from rural to urban societies. The promises of increased economic opportunities and accessible health care, education, and transportation are among the most important reasons encouraging people to move. This fundamental demographic process makes significant changes in the population of urban places, making the rural-to-urban transitions often chaotic. 

The rapidly developing urban centers, defined as megacities with a population of 10 million or more, present a unique opportunity to study the future of our planet and how to make it more resilient and sustainable. Today, the world population is concentrated in cities, and this trend will continue in the future. The predictions are that by 2030, two-thirds of the world’s population will reside in urban areas, and there will be 41 megacities, of which more than 80% will be in low and middle-income countries. On the one side, megacities are culturally, socioeconomically, and racially diverse, while environmental heterogeneity exists in those areas. Future comprehensive studies of megacities should focus on common issues and consider the complex health outcomes of the natural and built environmental landscapes (Patel & Burke, 2009).

If megacities can successfully provide safety and security, there might be several benefits of living in megacities. The declining population in rural areas will reduce the stress on natural environments, while the increasing population in cities will provide effective aggregation of the limited resources. However, the high-density population of megacities makes the citizens exposed to various threats of disasters. Traditionally, the disasters are either natural (hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, etc.) or technological disasters (radiation leaks, oil spills, infrastructure collapses, derailments, etc.). It is undeniable that great opportunities and significant challenges accompany the rise of cities around the globe. Many world regions have increased the number of city dwellers, which makes the questions about the safety and health of the dense environments paramount.

Today, 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, and considering the UN predicts that by 2050, this number is expected to increase to 68%. The gradual shift from rural to urban areas, combined with the overall population growth, could add 2.5 billion people to urban areas by 2050. Approximately 90% of this increase will take place in Asia and Africa (UN, 2018).

Food security is one of the most common issues in urban-build environments. Namely, megacities are often poorly equipped and cannot provide stable food sources for sustaining massive populations. Low and middle-income megacities face severe food shortages and poverty due to increased food prices and malnutrition. Moreover, megacities face increased BMIs (body-mass index) due to sedentary lifestyles and shift toward a western diet (Saquib et al., 2016).

The extremely rapid growth of population in megacities causes significant challenges in the accommodation of the citizens, which often leads to unplanned and underserved areas. Homelessness, squatting, and slum areas are described as areas of overcrowded, poor, informal forms of substandard housing. Slums lack access to clean drinking water and sanitary facilities, and residents often don’t have the power over the land they occupy. A report by the UN shows that over 1 billion people live in slums or informal settlements, with 80% attributed to three regions: Eastern and South-Eastern Asia (370 million), sub-Saharan Africa (238 million), and Central and Southern Asia (227 million). It is estimated that by 2030, over 3 billion people will require adequate and affordable housing (UN, 2019).

Air pollution is another serious problem that affects the well-being of all people globally. Statistics show that over 92% of the global population is exposed to higher than recommended concentrations of PM2·5, which is the cause of 3 million premature deaths annually. Megacities are the areas with an extremely high concentration of these substances, and exposure can cause fatal health conditions, including stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer (WHO, 2016).

Urban-heat-island effect is another negative consequence of living in megacities. This atmospheric phenomenon is characterized by temperatures increasing by 40-50 °F in the city compared to surrounding areas. This vast difference in temperatures leads to higher incidents of dehydration, heatstroke, and cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. The high temperatures encourage increased use of cooling systems that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, further aggravating the heat-island effect (Campbell-Lendrum & Corvalán, 2007).

Megacities face a significant challenge in providing clean, running water and sewage removal, essential for disease control and decent living. Additionally, the old colonial infrastructure of some megacities makes dealing with the volume of new materials in sewer systems more complex. The lack of freshwater to meet the standard water demand occurs due to drought, leaking infrastructure, and unsustainable groundwater extraction. It is projected that from one-third of the global urban population in 2016 (933 million), by 2050, approximately one third to nearly half of the global urban population (1.693–2.373 billion people) will be affected by water-scarce urban population, with India projected to be the most severely affected (increase of 153–422 million people) (He et al., 2021).

Traffic in megacities is heavy and odious. With over 10 million residents, traffic in megacities has two problematic features. First, vehicle variation inhibits the movement. It is not uncommon for some megacities with different types of transportation to share the same roads all of which move at different speeds and have different maneuverability. As a result, the flow is blocked, and all traffic participants cannot move effectively. Moreover, as part of unsustainable urban development, traffic increases air pollution and causes health risks associated with harmful pollutants. This ultimately has severe economic and social costs. Despite the fact that many well-developed megacities have made significant progress in reducing air pollution, there are still many challenges in achieving clean and breathable air, among other issues.   

Other challenges associated with urban-built environments include overcrowding, a scarcity of open space, inadequate electricity supply due to high demand, high levels of inequality, unemployment, urban violence, etc.​

To answer the initial question: are megacities safe for a living?

If they are adequately managed, megacities have fantastic potential to reduce poverty and improve living conditions for millions of people. Still, considering all of the facts listed above, it is safe to conclude that megacities may not always be the best choice. Each individual can make most of the advantages that megacities offer and try to make the planet a better living place. Starting with small choices, we all can make megacities healthier and more tolerable.  

Sources:

Campbell-Lendrum, D., Corvalán C (2007) Climate change and developing-country cities: implications for environmental health and equity. Journal of Urban Health, 84, 109-117.

He, C., Liu, Z., Wu, J. et al. (2021). Future global urban water scarcity and potential solutions. Nature Communications 12(4667) . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25026-3

Patel, R.B. & Burke, T.F. (2009). Urbanization—An emerging humanitarian disaster. The New England Journal of Medicine, 361, 741-743.

Saquib, J., Saquib, N., Stefanick, M. L., Khanam, M. A., Anand, S., Rahman, M., Chertow, G. M., Barry, M., Ahmed, T., & Cullen, M. R. (2016). Sex differences in obesity, dietary habits, and physical activity among urban middle-class Bangladeshis. International journal of health sciences, 10(3), 363–372.

United Nations. (2019). Sustainable development goals- 2019 report. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Department. Retrieved from: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/goal-11/.

United Nations. (2018). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revisions. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Department. Retrieved from: https://population.un.org/wup/publications/Files/WUP2018-Report.pdf.

World Health Organization. (2016). Ambient air pollution: a global assessment of exposure and burden of disease. World Health Organization. Retrieved from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/250141.

‘Historic Win’: Bill to Protect and Regulate Over 1M Acres of Wetlands Passes in New York

Governor Hochul and the New York State Legislature had decided to include reforms to the NYS Freshwater Wetlands Act in the SFY 2022-23 Budget. The Save NYS Wetlands Coalition praises this historical and essential legislation that will allow the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) to protect more than 1 million acres of freshwater wetlands critical for millions of people. Moreover, this major reform will save millions of migratory and nesting birds.

This agreement has enormous importance for New York State’s wetlands. Prior to this reform, larger wetlands in NY had to be included on official state maps, which left room for the filling, dredging, and draining of unmapped wetlands. This arbitrary requirement is now terminated with the legislation ratified in the budget. The DEC will have the power and autonomy to protect the 1 million acres of freshwater wetlands currently unmapped. In addition, this bill expands the DEC’s authority in protecting wetlands larger than 7.4 acres and smaller wetlands of ‘unusual importance’ by requiring special permits for activities that directly impact those types of wetlands. This provides substantial benefits to both environment, including mitigation of flooding, providing habitat for wildlife, decreasing the impact of climate change thanks to increased climate resilience, carbon sequestration, and maintaining a higher amount of clean drinking water.  

Reforms included in the SFY 2022-23 Budget will:

  • Allow the Department to protect wetlands that are 12.4 acres or greater in size or of “unusual importance” and will eliminate the existing state freshwater wetland maps in 2025 that are authoritative and incompatible with the wetland’s nature.
  • Decrease the verge of mandatory freshwater wetlands permitting from 12.4 to 7.4 acres in 2028.
  • Include concise criteria for permitting smaller wetlands of ‘unusual importance,” including wetlands that attenuate significant flooding, filter drinking water, provide habitat for rare species, or are located in an urban area, among other criteria.
  • Create a rebuttable presumption that freshwater wetlands should always be subject to regulation and permitting until the competent authorities do not prove otherwise.
  • Increase fees and fines regarding wetland violations which haven’t been changed since the1980’s.
  • Remove prohibitive red tape and agency costs related to wetlands protection.
  • Provide funds for wetland management and local mapping of freshwater wetlands through the Climate Smart Communities Program in the NYS Environmental Protection Fund.
  • The Department also received a direction to create educational resources on the process of identifying freshwater wetlands to inform landowners and local governments.
  • This bill includes a requirement for the Department to consult with the federal government, colleges and universities, environmental organizations, and other entities to create more accurate freshwater wetlands maps, which will be maintained as an online informational resource.    

Wetlands constantly succumb to shifting federal protections, including court decisions that significantly reduced the types of waters protected under the federal Clean Water Act. These profound changes have pressurized federal protections for many important habitats across New York State and alarmed the urgent need to reform the New York State Freshwater Wetlands Act. 

Source:

Passed! Historic Wetlands Protections Included in New York State Budget. (2022, April 8). NY Audubon. Retrieved from https://ny.audubon.org/about-us/passed-historic-wetlands-protections-included-new-york-state-budget.

Benefits of the Greenhouse Effect

What Is the Greenhouse Effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that helps maintain the average temperature level of 15°C on the Earth’s surface. In this process, the thermal radiation from Earth’s surface is reabsorbed by greenhouse gases and then radiated in all directions, which provides thermal regulations for all living species on Earth. Namely, the greenhouse effect is indispensable for life because, in its absence, the average temperature would be minus 18°C.

The Earth’s atmosphere is a gaseous layer that surrounds the planet and is retained by the Earth’s gravity. The light from the Sun, invisible ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths penetrate the planetary atmosphere, and oceans and land naturally absorb approximately 70% of this solar radiation. The rest is reflected in space, but the real issue is the radiation absorbed in our atmosphere. Greenhouse gases retain the radiation in the atmosphere, thus increasing the planet’s average temperature. 

While the natural greenhouse effect is essential for the Earth’s climate and all living creatures, the increased amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is a global issue that affects all living species. The CO2 released from the burning of fossil fuels, over time, accumulates and creates a so-called “insulating blanket” around the Earth, which traps the Sun’s heat in the Earth’s atmosphere and ultimately increases the average temperature. In other words, the release of CO2 contributes to the current intensified greenhouse effect.     

Which Gases Cause the Greenhouse Effect?

Greenhouse gases and the balance of the greenhouse effect depend on three factors: how much heat is absorbed, how much of the heat is re-radiated, and how much of it is in the Earth’s atmosphere. Gases that contribute most to the greenhouse effect are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and ozone (O3).

The gases mentioned above have different power of absorption and re-radiation, also known as global warming potential (GWP). The greenhouse gas’s ability to trap extra heat in the atmosphere relative to carbon dioxide (CO2) is most often calculated over 100 years and is called the 100-year GWP. Interestingly, methane is 23 times more effective, and nitrous oxide is 296 times more effective than carbon dioxide. Still, there is a substantially higher amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere than methane or nitrous oxide.

The greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere do not remain there indefinitely. For instance, the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere and the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in the water surface of oceans are in constant equipoise because air and water mix well at the surface.

Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases 

Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, human activities have changed the environment considerably. This includes increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The primary sources of anthropogenic greenhouse gases are burning fossil fuels, agriculture and forestry, cement manufacture, and aerosol emissions.  

  • Burning fossil fuels

Scientists at NOAA Climate stated that carbon dioxide levels are considerably higher than in the last 800,000 years. Human activities add more carbon dioxide annually into the atmosphere than the natural processes can remove each year. For instance, in the 1960s, the global growth rate of atmospheric carbon dioxide was roughly 0.6 ± 0.1 ppm per year, and only half a century later, between 2009-18, the growth rate was 2.3 ppm per year (Blunden & Boyer, 2020). In a period of 60 years, the annual rate of increase is approximately 100 times faster than in previous natural increases, such as at the end of the last ice age 11,000-17,000 years ago.

The burning of fossil fuels has increased carbon dioxide levels from an atmospheric concentration of approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) in pre-industrial times to over 400 ppm in 2018. In other words, since the start of the Industrial Revolution, human activities have led to a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. With the current rate of about 2–3 ppm/year, by the end of the 21st century, carbon dioxide concentrations are estimated to exceed 900 ppm.

Suppose this trend of substantially increased carbon dioxide emissions, methane, and other greenhouse gases continues by 2100. In that case, the average surface temperature at the global level could increase by up to 4.8°C compared to pre-industrial levels (Lindsey, 2020). To stop this temperature rise, scientists suggest projects limiting the concentrations and keeping the temperature change as low as possible, preferably below +2°C. The limitations include cuts in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and extensive changes in the energy systems at global levels.     

According to the new International Energy Agency (IEA) analysis, the global energy-related carbon dioxide emissions rose by 6% in 2021, to 36,3 billion tonnes (IEA, 2022). This is the highest ever level, and the main reason for it is the strong rebound of the world economy after the Covid-19 crisis, which mainly relied on coal to power the growth and demand.

  • Land use 

Significantly increased land use for agriculture, deforestation and other purposes are accounted for one-quarter of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2019). The primary sources of emissions are feed production (45 %), greenhouse gas outputs during digestion by cows (39 %), and manure decomposition (10 %). Also, the production and transport of animal products contribute to total greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, the increased utilization of wetlands and landfill emissions lead to increased methane concentration in the atmosphere.  

  • Cement manufacture

Cement is the second most-consumed resource in the world, right behind water. Globally, more than 4 billion tons of material are produced every year. The process of manufacturing cement includes the heating of calcium carbonate, which results in the production of lime and carbon dioxide. As such, this industry is one of the major global emitters of carbon dioxide, emitting approximately 8 % of global carbon monoxide emissions (Lehne & Preston, 2018).

  • Aerosols

The burning of fossil fuels has several side effects on the planet, including the small particles suspended in the atmosphere called aerosols. Aerosols can be released from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigeration systems and halons used in fire suppression systems. Along with the aerosols produced by human activities, several natural processes, including forest fires, volcanoes, and isoprene emitted from plants produce aerosols.

While the greenhouse gases lead to increased temperatures on the Earth’s surface, aerosol pollution can counteract the warming effect. For instance, sulfate aerosols are the product of fossil fuel combustion. This aerosol reduces the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth’s surface and thus causes a cooling effect.

Benefits of the Greenhouse Effect

While greenhouse gases contribute to global warming, at the same time, they are sustaining life on this planet. Besides regulating the temperature on the Earth’s surface, greenhouse gases offer a myriad of other benefits. Greenhouse gases block the harmful solar radiation from reaching the Earth’s surface. These gases act as a shield that makes the unwanted damaging energy reflect back into space. One of the most important greenhouse gas, ozone, absorbs the Sun’s harmful ultra-violet (UV) rays by 97-99 %. Without the ozone layer, the UV rays would penetrate the Earth’s surface, and long-term exposure to a high level of it can severely damage both animal and plant cells. The greenhouse effect also enables the planet to maintain water levels when it comes to water surfaces.

Sources:

Blunden, J. & Boyer, T. Eds. (2020). State of the climate in 2020. Bull.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2019). Land is a critical resource, IPCC report says. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved from: https://www.ipcc.ch/2019/08/08/land-is-a-critical-resource_srccl/.

International Energy Agency. (2022). Global CO2 emissions rebounded to their highest level in history in 2021. International Energy Agency. Retrieved from: https://www.iea.org/news/global-co2-emissions-rebounded-to-their-highest-level-in-history-in-2021.

Lehne, J. & Preston, F. (2018). Making concrete change: Innovation in low-carbon cement and concrete. Chatham House. Retrieved from: https://www.chathamhouse.org/2018/06/making-concrete-change-innovation-low-carbon-cement-and-concrete-0/about-authors.

Lindsey, R. (2020). Climate change: Atmospheric carbon dioxide. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved from: https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide.

Importance of Forests & Plant Health

What Is Forest Health

The resilience, recurrence, and persistence have defined forest health and biophysical processes in the forests, leading to sustainable ecological conditions and simultaneously satisfying human needs. The definition and understanding of forest health depend on the spatial scale.

In order to maintain, enhance and restore healthy forest conditions, it is of utmost importance to provide forest insect, disease, invasive plant surveying and monitoring, technical and financial assistance to prevent, suppress, and control outbreaks threatening forest resources.  

Forest Health Protection

The U.S. Forest Service, a division of the United States Department of Agriculture, has over 250 specialists in the fields of forest entomology and forest pathology. The Forest Health Protection program provides forest health-related services to protect the forests from insects, disease, and invasive species. This is achieved through developing, promoting, and implementing pest management strategies and monitoring evolving trends in overall forest health.

Additionally, the Forest Service’s Research and Development team has worked on improving the health and use of our Nation’s forests and grasslands ever since the agency’s inception in 1905. Researchers closely collaborate with biological, physical, and social scientists to create plans for sustainable management of the Nation’s diverse forests and rangelands.     

Forests and the pests that affect them are a part of a complex ecosystem, which makes managing tree health challenging and requires approaches that will safeguard the resilience of forests. Forest pest control can be either natural or artificial. Natural control includes changes in climatic conditions, nutrition, host resistance, and biotic factors. Artificial control comprises methods such as silvicultural control, biological control, microbial control, and chemical control. Moreover, the process of pest management includes understanding the biology of pests and diseases, and learning how to combat or live with them successfully.

To draft sustainable control strategies, researchers need a better understanding of the mechanisms driving the resurgence of native pathogens and the invasion of alien ones. Namely, with the help of experimental monitoring approaches. Such approaches include creating different scenarios which vary in pathogen and host populations size, genetics, phenotype and phenology, landscape fragmentation, the occurrence of disturbances, management practices, etc. Scientists will have better insight into the epidemiology and invasiveness of forest pathogens, and ultimately will gather the knowledge to create effective management plans.  

International Year of Plant Health: Experts Join Forces to Protect World Forests From Invasive Pests and Pathogens

The United Nations General Assembly declared 2020 as the International Year of Plant Health (IYPH). Pathologists and entomologists from the EU project HOMED (Holistic Management of Emerging forest pests and Diseases) aim to prevent or reduce the detrimental impact on forests of alien and emerging native pests and pathogens. With united knowledge and expertise, researchers battle the biotic threats posed by infestations and improve the long-term health of forests. Protection and improvement of forest health are crucial steps towards effective climate regulation, wood production, biodiversity reservoir, and, ultimately, human well-being. Scientists at HOMED use a unique methodology from several scientific fields and a technological and risk management approach to prevent, detect, diagnose, eradicate, and control emerging native and non-native pests threatening forest health.

HOMED recognized the need to make a parallel between the fields of pathology and entomology with the ultimate goal to improve the long-term health of forests. Therefore, HOMED recommends joining scientific communities and developing interdisciplinary research programs, developing generic tools and methods for managing pathogens and pests, creating education programs, and training students and volunteers. Project researchers suggest an innovative approach in research policy and the implementation of research results.     

Source:

Sapundzhieva, A. (n.d.). International Year of plant health: Experts join forces to protect world forests from invasive pests and pathogens. European Commission. Retrieved from https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/421637-international-year-of-plant-health-experts-join-forces-to-protect-world-forests-from-invasive     

Southern Ocean Officially Named Fifth World Ocean by National Geographic

For years, children worldwide have grown up memorizing the basic facts: there are seven continents and four oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic oceans. Until now. On June 8, 2021, the National Geographic Society published their article recognizing the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica as the fifth world ocean (Gibbens, 2021).

What’s in a Name?

Changes to world maps are usually made due to political agreements and modifications. For example, Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Swaziland voted to change its name to Eswatini. The Republic of Macedonia changed its name to the Republic of North Macedonia. These changes have political significance, in most cases for foreign policy purposes.

National Geographic geographer Alex Tait explained why naming conventions are essential: “Part of mapping the world is using place names and features that are in common use among people who are describing the world, and this gets into some other things other than geopolitical naming” (Gibbens, 2021). Tait highlights that despite National Geographic’s prominence in the mapping world, giving its official decree more weight, others have started to use the term “Southern Ocean”.

Limits of the Southern Ocean

While this recognition leaves a notable impression on geographers around the world, the Southern Ocean’s classification as an independent ocean has been contested amongst researchers for centuries. The debate stems from the connectivity of the Southern Ocean with the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The existing world oceans are characterized by their boundaries, which are established by continents. As there are no landforms to define the boundary of the Southern Ocean, it was thought to be an extension of these waters. While there are no physical boundaries defining the Southern Ocean, Antarctica is surrounded by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC); the world’s strongest ocean current (Flowers, 2021).

The ACC was formed approximately 34 million years ago when Antarctica split from South America (Gibbens, 2021). The current flows from west to east around Antarctica in a broad fluctuating band that roughly follows 60 degrees latitude south. According to an article written by Jennifer Flowers for AFAR, the ACC plays an important role in exchanging nutrients and regulating ocean temperatures. The Southern Ocean is distinct ecosystem as the ACC keeps the ocean waters at temperatures ranging from -2 to 10 degrees Celsius. This provides habitat to unique wildlife that cannot be found anywhere on the planet.

“New” World Ocean

Although this ocean, until recently, has not had an official name, it isn’t entirely new. Back in 2000, experts proposed boundaries for the Southern Ocean, but all the countries making up the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) could not come to a unanimous decision on how the Southern Ocean would be distinguished. To this day, the Southern Ocean is still not recognized by the IHO, but it is anticipated that this move by National Geographic will pave the way for international recognition.

The National Geographic Society’s map policy committee had been considering making this important change for years. The change aligns with the Society’s initiative to conserve the world’s oceans, focusing public awareness on a region in particular need of a conservation spotlight.  Alex Tait states “we’ve always labeled it, but we labeled it slightly different [than other oceans]” (Gibbens, 2021).

The National Geographic Society hopes that by drawing attention to the Southern Ocean, they can raise awareness and promote the conservation of this critical system.

Sources:

Flowers, J. (2021, August 26). Introducing the world’s newest ocean. AFAR Magazine. https://www.afar.com/magazine/the-southern-ocean-was-just-named-earths-fifth-heres-why

Gibbens, S. (2021, June 8). There’s a new ocean now—can you name all 5?. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/theres-a-new-ocean-now-can-you-name-all-five-southern-ocean

Urban Ecology: A Bright Future for Sustainable Cities

What Is Urban Ecology?

Urban ecology is a discipline that studies ecosystems that include humans living in cities and urbanized landscapes. This interdisciplinary field focuses on researching how humans and ecological processes can co-exist. The ultimate goal of urban ecology is to understand human-dominated systems and to help societies in their effort to become more sustainable.

Considering the interdisciplinary nature, the term “urban ecology” also includes the study of humans in cities, nature in cities, as well as the relationships between humans and nature in general. Each research area has an essential contribution in terms of collecting data and researching the processes of urban ecosystems. 

Within the science of ecology, urban ecology is defined as a study of processes, structure, and dynamics in urbanized areas. Urban ecology studies the relationships between human and non-human organisms in urban areas, interactions between organisms and their relationship with the native and constructed environment, and how these relationships between organisms impact the fluxes of energy, materials, and information within urban and nonurban systems.

The methods and concepts used in the study of urban ecology are based on biological science and interact with social science concepts, approaches, and concerns, thus producing a hybrid discipline. Subject to research in urban ecology are individual organisms, populations, communities, landscapes, and buildings and infrastructure. Furthermore, urban ecosystems are part of the global biogeochemical, economic, and human demographic.

Why Is Urban Ecology Important?

According to the United Nations’ median projection (2015a), by 2030, the world’s population will grow to around 8.5 billion. Additionally, a report released by the United Nations UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) states that by 2050, two out of every three people are likely to be living in cities or other urban centers. As a result of demographic shifts and overall population growth, approximately 2.5 billion people could be added to the urban areas by the middle of the century. This increase in population is expected to be highly concentrated in several countries. In addition to the demand for space for building homes, these people will need breathable air, potable water, and food.

The phenomenon of urbanization is already having a profound effect on the natural system. However, there are large areas of green spaces within cities (lawns, parks, golf courses, wetlands, nature preserves, etc.) which filter the pollution in air and water, produce oxygen, mitigate urban heat island effects, and provide habitat for many plant and animal species.

The development of landscapes in the past quarter-century draws scientists’ and environmentalists’ attention. They have recognized the need to understand the interactions of the living and non-living components of the urban ecosystems.

Evolving Discipline of Urban Ecology

Human settlements are specific ecosystems and a unique combination of human-made structures and natural elements, maintained by complex interactions within and between ecological and social systems. Today, urban areas face many daunting environmental and social challenges, including air and water pollution, increased stratospheric ozone levels, increasing energy demands, poor waste management, and food shortages.

Our planet has advanced into a stage of human–ecosystem relationships in which there is an immense economic and environmental interconnection in cities (Haughton & Hunter, 1994). The impact of this connection has grown from local and regional phenomena, to global in scale. In order to efficiently address and mitigate the social and environmental challenges arising from urbanization and human activities, there is a need to promote and advance the field of urban ecology. Urban ecology is focused on a diverse array of new research results, conceptual frameworks, designs, plans, policies, and vital debates, developed by urban ecology academics, professionals, and students worldwide. 

History of Urban Ecology

Urban ecology arose in the early 1970s as a subdiscipline of ecology. Urban ecology is closely aligned with a relatively new discipline called landscape ecology and long-established discipline of geography. The approaches and frameworks used in other disciplines make the boundaries of urban ecology blurred, and therefore, it is impossible to set a unified definition. A commonly used definition for urban ecology is the study of environmental impact and sustainability of urbanization with a focus on biodiversity, ecosystem processes, and ecosystem services.

Urban Ecosystems

Urbanized areas can be viewed as a specific ecosystem due to their ecological attributes. Urbanized areas need enormous inputs of energy and materials for sustaining the human population and the diverse activities and to maintaining its structure and growth.

Humans are the dominant species in urban ecosystems. Their activities significantly impact many other species and ecological functions within urban ecosystems. Urban areas are urban–industrial techno-ecosystems dominated by businesses, dwellings, factories, roads, and other infrastructures of the human economy; including urban green spaces.  

Urban areas are fundamentally dependent on the surrounding ecosystems, providing them with necessary resources and assimilating generated waste. An urban population’s ecological footprint (eco-footprint) is the area of ecoscape (landscape and seascape) critical for supplying food, energy, materials, waste disposal, and other essential goods and services. On average, one individual has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 hectares, while there are only 1.8 ha of bio-productive land and water on Earth (Ewing et al., 2010). In other words, humanity has already overreached the global bio-capacity by 30 %.

Future Challenges

Urban ecosystems sustain humans, associated non-native organisms, native species, and fragmented habitats. An urban ecosystems’ primary function is to supply immense quantities of natural resources and waste assimilation. The greatest challenge for urban ecologists is to develop a sustainable urban ecosystem and exchange of energy that doesn’t affect biodiversity. Ultimately, the knowledge of urban ecology will be used in mitigation and reducing the urban–industrial footprint. When scientists can develop such a plan, urban areas will become more ecologically sustainable than they are today.

Currently, urban ecology is unable to satisfy the growing demand for knowledge and solutions to create healthy, green, biodiverse, and resilient urbanized areas. With joint efforts, environmental conservationists, architects, planners, engineers, landscape architects, land managers, and policymakers are trying to achieve the full potential of urban ecology. Numerous studies contribute to the development of this discipline, including research of urban climate, urban sustainability, soils, vegetation, animals, ecosystems, green spaces, parks, people’s use of the environment, planning, management, and policymaking. Emerging disciplines relating to urban ecology, such as green architecture, smart growth, progressive planning, water conservation, can help create efficient and environmentally conscious urban infrastructure.