Category: Newsletter

First there was Fracking, then came Re-fracking

Swamp Stomp

WM

Volume 18 Issue 31

Many people in the United States believe that hydraulic fracturing, better known as “fracking” is a relatively new technique used to help extract oil and gas trapped in layers far below the Earth’s surface. For the most part, they are correct. Modern fracking used in combination with horizontal drilling was only introduced in the 1990’s and with great success. But the history of fracking has a much longer and richer history that can trace its roots back to the 1860’s and the Civil War.

Back in 1862, Lt. Col. Edward A. L. Roberts, a Lieutenant Colonel of the 28th New Jersey Volunteers, had the idea of opening underground oil-bearing cracks and crevices by the introduction of explosives. He eventually received one of many patents on a device he called the “exploding torpedo”. In his process, a long, thin, iron tube packed with black powder was lowered into a borehole. It was then back-filled with water to concentrate the explosive force downwards and detonated. Production in some wells improved by more than 1200%!

Through the years this technique continued to be successfully used and improved upon with further increases in production. Then in 1947, the first use of hydraulic fracturing, the introduction of pressurized fluids, was demonstrated in an oil field in Kansas, where 1000 gallons of napalm were injected into a limestone formation. There was little increase in production at the time, but this modest beginning led to further work with different materials and techniques and within a decade, 30% increases in oil production and 90% increases in natural gas production were common.

Then, in the 1980’s, companies began experimenting with combining the fracturing process with horizontal drilling techniques and by the 90’s modern fracking began to thrive. Previously unproductive wells were now producing and new formations, up until now, mostly inaccessible, began to produce in abundance. Some of the more notable formations are the great Bakken oil shale fields of the northern US and Canada and the Marcellus and Utica formations in the East. The USGS estimated the recoverable oil in the Bakken to be 3 to 4 billion barrels and possibly up to 7.4 billion barrels of yet to be discovered oil and more than 6.7 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. In the east, a new report by the Colorado School of Mines’ Potential Gas Committee (PGC) finds the Atlantic region — which includes the Marcellus and Utica shales — has the most promising natural gas potential in the country at more than 1,047 trillion cubic feet!

So, why do we need “Re-fracking”? Re-fracking is the practice of returning to older shale oil and gas wells that had been fracked in the recent past to capitalize on newer, more effective extraction technology. Re-fracking can be effective on especially tight deposits – where the shale produces low yields – to expand their productivity and extend their life. Wells sunk as little as three years ago and fracked until yields fell too low to be worthwhile are now being re-fracked. With wells costing many millions of dollars to drill and complete, it makes sense to return to see if new technology can extend their life. Most re-fracking success has been with vertical wells but an increasing number of horizontal wells show great promise. According to an analysis by the Los Alamos National Laboratory, on average just 13% of the gas from any given US shale is recovered. The potential for re-stimulating existing wells is therefore huge.

It is believed that over 90% of existing wells have undergone some form of fracking. Though there are health and safety concerns involving fracking, it is hard to argue with the results. Because of fracking, the United States has moved from a net oil-importing country, back to a net oil-exporting country. A recent concern, at least for natural gas, is that overproduction has lowered the price of natural gas to historical lows. While good for the consumer, it is not necessarily good for the producers who have had to cap off existing new wells due to oversupply (along with the inadequate infrastructure to get the gas where it is needed most.) The fact that fracking is now such an efficient process has allowed companies to continue to make money despite the abundance of natural gas in the marketplace.

There is no doubt that fracking and re-fracking are tremendous tools that will continue to benefit our country and the companies that produce our oil and gas. At least for the present, we can’t do without them. Let us hope that in our effort to become energy independent that we are mindful of the negative effects of this technology as well, and not sacrifice the health and safety of our nation’s people or our beautiful country from which we harvest these products. Do you think the pros of fracking out way the cons? Please comment below.

Sources:

https://web.archive.org/web/20121114205741/http://www.spe.org/jpt/print/archives/2010/12/10Hydraulic.pdf Hydraulic Fracturing, History of an Enduring Technology, By Carl T. Montgomery and Michael B Smith, 2010
https://aoghs.org/technology/hydraulic-fracturing/ Shooters – A “Fracking” History, By Bruce and Kris Wells, 2016, updated in 2017

https://www.businessinsider.com/the-history-of-fracking-2015-4 The origin of fracking actually dates back to the Civil War, By John Manfreda, OilPrice.com 2015

https://www.fool.com/investing/general/2015/08/24/refracking-could-be-huge-if-oil-stays-lower-for-lo.aspx, Refracking Could Be Huge If Oil Stays Lower for Longer, By Matthew DiLallo, 2015

https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/PT.3.3761 Refracturing may not be all it’s cracked up to be, By David Kramer, November 2017

https://www.forbes.com/sites/judeclemente/2017/09/24/why-u-s-natural-gas-prices-will-remain-low/#2775e2ed3783 Why U.S. Natural Gas Prices Will Remain Low, By Jude Clemente, 2017

https://www.energyindepth.org/infrastructure-key-marcellus-utica-shales-realizing-enormous-potential/ Infrastructure Key to Marcellus and Utica Shales Realizing Enormous Potential, By Jackie Stewart 2017

Peter Grande – Part of Nature’s Greatest Show on Earth

Swamp Stomp

Volume 18 Issue 30

If you’ve ever driven our country’s major highways, you have most likely come across a few of the world’s more interesting phenomena. Billboards the size of an Imax screen exclaim, “Come and see the world’s largest ball of yarn, the world’s tallest Tepee, (or one of my favorites), world’s largest cherry pie!” Well, not to be outdone, Mother Nature has put in a bid for a “worlds largest” recognition but you won’t see it on any billboard because it only occurs every 3-10 years on average, and even then, it’s only visible for about 24-48 hours. It’s hard to plan to advertise when you don’t know the exact arrival date, about as hard as predicting the birth of a baby.

So without further ado, Mother Nature proudly presents, “The World’s Largest Flowering Structure (inflorescence) on Earth, the Amorphophallus titanum!” AKA “The Corpse Flower” because of the smell it produces, and the less descriptive name, Titan arum. This unique plant is native to the rainforests of western Sumatra, Indonesia, on steep hillsides that are 120–365m above sea level, but it has also been successfully propagated over 570 times around the world since 1889.

The Titan Arum grows from the world’s largest known corm, sometimes weighing up to 220 lbs. (100kg). During the non-flowering years, a single leaf, the size of a small tree, shoots up from the corm. This leaf branches out into three sections with each of these sprouting more leaflets. Each year, this shooting leaf dies and a new one grows in its place. After many years, the plant finally gathers enough energy to bloom. But when it does, it goes all out, producing the largest unbranched inflorescence in the plant kingdom, ranging from 1-4m tall.

This past July the author was part of a large crowd of onlookers who were able to witness the rare bloom of “Peter Grande” at the Plant Delights Nursery, Raleigh, NC. One way of keeping track of Amorphophallus clones is to name them, hence, “Peter Grande”. Other names of specific plants include The Amazing Stinko, Carrion my Wayward Son, and Pewtunia! Who knew Botanists had such imagination?

Once the “flower” appears, a not completely understood process that includes powerful waves of olfactory-battering scents reminiscent of decaying flesh begins the process of pollination. According to the Chicago Botanic Garden’s blog, an analysis of the stench found that it consists of dimethyl trisulfide (also emitted by cooked onions and Limburger cheese), dimethyl disulfide (which has an odor like garlic), trimethylamine (found in rotting fish or ammonia), isovaleric acid (which also causes sweaty socks to stink), benzyl alcohol (a sweet floral scent found in jasmine and hyacinth), phenol (sweet and medicinal, as in Chloraseptic throat spray), and indole (like mothballs). This potpourri of chemicals is assumed to attract pollinators to the plant that they make their way down to the bottom of the inflorescence, deposit pollen on the stigmas, and then remain with the plant for about 24 hours before departing. If successfully pollinated, numerous red fruit, often called berries, are produced. Since the plant draws large amounts of energy from its corm as the seeds develop, eventually the plant dies. Should pollination not occur, the plant survives and begins the process all over again.

Mother Nature has produced a truly amazing plant, but one that is known to be vulnerable to extinction. The rainforests of Sumatra are under massive threat of deforestation, as vast areas are logged for timber and to make way for oil palm plantations. It is estimated that Indonesia has now lost around 72% of its original rainforest cover, and the scale of deforestation is continuing at an alarming rate.

We are fortunate botanists have been able to cultivate this rare species in greenhouses around the world and we owe our thanks to nurseries like Plant Delights, for helping assure that people in future generations are able to witness this wonder of nature.

Sources:

https://www.livescience.com/51947-corpse-flower-facts-about-the-smelly-plant.html Corpse Flower: Facts About the Smelly Plant, By Alina Bradford, Live Science Contributor | May 30, 2017

https://www.plantdelights.com/pages/amorphophallus-titanum-flowering July 2018

http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:84456-1

The Pros and Cons of Seattle’s Plastic Straw Ban

Swamp Stomp

Volume 18 Issue 29

The banning of plastic straws has been a topic discussed frequently in environmental circles. As of July 1st, this became not just a topic for discussion, but a reality for Seattle, Washington, which is now the largest city in the United States that has banned the use of plastic straws. This may seem like a simple act, but it has had major effects on companies and people around the country, for better and for worse.

The ban on plastic straws may be a major win for the environment. Zoos around the country have been encouraging visitors to say no to straws, and some have even had bans on straws for years. This comes from the realization that plastic straws are a major contributor to the enormous amount of waste that finds its way our oceans. One study found that 8.3 billions of plastic straws have made their way to beaches around the world. Another study found that plastic straws make up 7 percent of America’s total plastic waste. By eliminating plastic straws from the trash we create, we really are doing the environment a great favor. However, this ban is not as simple as it sounds.

Restaurant chains such as Starbucks and McDonalds have promised their customers that plastic straws will no longer exist in their stores in the coming years. While this is great news for the environment, as these stores serve billions of customers, this is terrible news for people with disabilities. Many people have disabilities such that their jaws are not strong enough to drink without a straw, perhaps they cannot lift their heads the right way to drink without a straw, or they have are unable to use their hands to hold a cup in any way. Taking away straws takes away their ability to drink anything at all. Some supporters of banning plastic straws have considered this and suggested that these people may be able to use metal or paper straws instead of plastic straws. While this is a solution for some, others need the flexibility of a plastic straw. Dianne Laurine, a Seattle resident who has cerebral palsy, admits that plastic straws were truly life-changing. Her caretaker, Bill Reeves, states that before plastic straws there were rubber straws and these, “ended up being disgusting, and hard to clean.”

So, what is the solution? Should we ban plastic straws to save the oceans from tons of waste at the expense of a portion of our population? Or should we just ignore this topic altogether in order to reduce the burden on people with disabilities? The key to the solution may be to at least limit their use whenever possible. Banning plastic straws completely may not be the solution, but encouraging those who can, to skip using straws may help. Plastic straws are an easy piece of trash to remove if you are able to drink without one, which is why this movement has become so popular. However, there are many other plastic items that could also be removed from the trash we accumulate. Plastic bottle caps, for instance, account for 17% of America’s plastic trash, 10% more than plastic straws. By skipping drinks that come in plastic bottles, an even greater amount of trash can be reduced. Darby Hoover, a senior resource specialist for the Natural Resources Defense Council, states, “The key is breaking habits. Is something a habit because you truly need it or because you got used to doing it that way?” For some, plastic straws may simply a wasteful habit that can be changed and benefit our environment at the same time.

Sources:

Gibbens, Sarah. “A Brief History of How Plastic Straws Took Over the World.” National Geographic. National Geographic. July 6, 2018. Web. July 11, 2018.

Godoy, Maria, and Danovich, Tove. “Why People with Disabilities Want the Ban on Plastic Straws to Be More Flexible.” NPR. NPR. July 11, 2018. Web. July 11, 2018.

Climate Change

Swamp Stomp

Volume 18 Issue 28

The average global temperature has been rising at an alarming rate for about two centuries now. Of course, this is not the hottest the Earth has ever been; during the time of the dinosaurs, the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere were much higher. One does have to consider though, how hot our planet can become while remaining habitable for humans.

The Industrial Revolution, beginning in the early to mid-1800s, started at a faster rate of climate change also known as Global Warming. As our global society has grown more technologically advanced, our reliance on fossil fuels has raised the level of CO2 in the atmosphere. The pre-industrial revolution CO2 level was about 280 parts per million. During the Industrial Revolution, coal began to be used as a fuel for machinery. The introduction of oil and gas later on also contributed a large number of emissions, especially in the 20th century.

Global temperature has risen a good amount within the past century especially, but global warming as a term may be misleading to some. Bringing a snowball to the Senate does not prove global warming false. Global warming leads to more extreme weather, such as an increase in the number and severity of hurricanes, and even winter storms. It also has a more gradual effect. Glaciers and ice caps are melting in warmer times of the year and at a faster rate than normal, and the colder times of year are not enough to make up for the damage. The average temperature of our oceans, which absorb much of the increased heat, have risen by about .3 degrees. Considering the fact that oceans cover over 70% of the earth’s surface, that represents an enormous amount of energy being absorbed.

In recent years, many governments have put measures into place to reduce their carbon footprints. This has helped lead to a slow-down in the rate of global warming, enough so that many people have called it a “pause”. This is incorrect because the global temperature is still increasing, albeit at a slower rate.

Around 2036, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere will reach 560 parts per million, double the Pre-Industrial Revolution level. This will cause the world to cross a climate threshold, leading to even greater environmental issues. The slow-down may give us a few more years to correct our behaviors, but only a few.

The slowdown in the rate of global warming shows us that although we may not be able to totally reverse the damage we have caused; our efforts thus far have not been in vain. Now is the time for radical changes in policy. As individuals, we can do our best at reducing our own emissions and make more environmentally sound decisions, but it can only go so far. It’s time we held governments and corporations to the same standard we hold our citizens. We need to move toward clean energy as a society, and quickly. At this point, the possibility of making Earth uninhabitable for humans is not a matter of if, but when.

Source:

Michael E. Mann, Earth Will Cross the Climate Danger Threshold by 2036, Scientific American, April 1, 2014

Global climate change – Vital Signs of the Planet, https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/
Holly Shaftel -editor, July 2, 2018

Parrots in Peril

Swamp Stomp

Volume 18 Issue 26

“Endangered species” probably brings to mind an animal or plant that is not often seen. Perhaps the giant panda comes to mind or the whooping crane or something else that lives far away. However, some endangered species are closer than you might think. Many species of parrots, for instance, are seen often in pet stores. Yet, they have become increasingly endangered in recent decades. The illegal parrot trade has brought about the near extinction of many of the 350 species of parrots and will continue to do so if not somehow stopped.

In the United States, around 99 percent of parrots in pet stores are captive bred. Because parrots are now considered an endangered species, this is desirable in order to reduce the number of parrots that are removed from the wild. However, Donald Brightsmith, a zoologist at Texas A&M University, says, “if you’re in Peru, Costa Rica, or Mexico, the chances of it being wild caught are 99 percent,” when buying a parrot. Moreover, in order to prevent further population destruction of these parrots, a way needs to be determined to distinguish captive-bred parrots from wild bred parrots.

Now, captive bred parrot chicks are given a metal band that rests around one of their legs for their entire life. However, illegal parrot traders have been able to make their own metal bands for wild-caught parrots in order for them to appear captive bred. In South Africa, geneticists have come up with a possible solution to this problem. At the University of KwaZulu, a gene profiling method is being developed that will allow breeders, pet buyers, or airport inspectors to determine if the parrot is captive bred by using distinct genetic profiles. Additionally, a method using chemical isotopes is being developed to determine the parrot’s diet, which points to where the parrot originated.

Although the rampant illegal parrot trade may make parrots’ futures seem grim, there have been recent improvements. For instance, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates have publicly stated that they will no longer import wild-caught African gray parrots, a species of parrot that has faced increasing danger. Additionally, the Puerto Rican parrot population, which consisted of 13 parrots in the 1970s, now consists of several hundred due to the efforts of biologists. Hopefully, as long as these efforts continue, the parrot populations may be able to avoid reaching extinction.

Source:

Dell’Amore, Christine. “Have Parrots Become Too Popular for their Own Good?” National Geographic. National Geographic. June 2018. Web. June 14, 2018.

New Evidence Concerning the Dinosaurs’ Extinction

Swamp Stomp

Volume 18, Issue 25

The extinction of the dinosaurs has been a mystery that has gripped the attention of people of all ages, from children with plastic dinosaur figurines to adults eagerly awaiting the release of the next Jurassic Park film. Recently, scientists have uncovered some clues that may help lead to obtaining the full story of how the dinosaurs went extinct, but these clues lie in a much more familiar animal than dinosaurs: birds.

Birds trace their ancestry all the way back to the dinosaurs. Many, including chickens, can trace their ancestry to a specific species of dinosaur, Archaeopteryx. Scientists have now begun to classify birds as being related to either ancient ground-dwelling or tree-dwelling species. They also discovered that the tree-dwelling birds, discovered via fossils, all became extinct due to the asteroid that killed the other dinosaurs 66 million years ago. In other words, all the birds that we see outside today, from cardinals to penguins, can be traced back to only ancient ground-dwelling birds. What does this tell us about the mass-extinction event that killed the dinosaurs? It also killed all the trees!

This deforestation is further confirmed by the species of ferns that exist today. Paleobotanist Antoine Bercovici of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC studied the spores and pollen of ferns found in rock layers that formed in the years after the asteroid impact. He discovered that all these ferns could be traced back to only two species of ferns. This indicated that there was a mass extinction of ferns species, resulting in rapid recolonizing by the two surviving species of ferns. Bercovici says this is seen today as well “when ferns recolonize lava flows in Hawaii or landslides after volcanic eruptions.”

This new evidence may seem small, but it is another piece in the giant puzzle that is the extinction of the dinosaurs. Scientists may now know why tree-dwelling birds living in the Cretaceous period died after the asteroid hit, but they still cannot explain why certain species of ground-dwelling ancient birds also died in this event. Scientists are excited to continue piecing together the evidence that will one day, completely answer the question, “What really happened when the dinosaurs went extinct?”

Sources:

Pickrell, John. “How did Dino-Era Birds Survive the Asteroid Apocalypse?” National Geographic. National Geographic. May 24, 2018. Web. May 30, 2018.

Wetland Biologist

Ecology and Environment, Inc. is seeking an experienced Wetland Biologist in our Chicago, IL office. This position will perform, lead and manage environmental field studies including wetland delineations, threatened and endangered plant surveys, and habitat assessments. Our successful candidate must have a strong understanding of the federal, state, and local permitting and environmental review processes for energy projects including pipelines, transmission facilities, and renewable energy projects and demonstrated abilities at project management, project-related research, and technical writing.

Responsibilities:
•Wetland field team lead and project management
•Coordinate and lead field teams in performing biological surveys for wetlands and waterbodies
•Manage environmental impact assessments and habitat mitigation tasks / projects
•Ensure that project teams work together to achieve results; set performance targets for staff, provide inspiring leadership and direction, and actively identify and resolve issues
•Understand and account for project contract requirements, assuring that commitments are met in accordance with deliverables, schedules, and with the appropriate level of quality
•Prepare NEPA documents and obtain the necessary environmental and other required local, state, and federal permits including Clean Water Act 401/404 permits and jurisdictional determinations
•Provide expertise current regulatory and scientific standards
•Lead federal and state agency coordination and negotiation
•Understand and stay current with appropriate regulatory requirements and scientific standards
•Provide advice and guidance to E & E staff on regulatory requirements and scientific standards
•Business development
•Seek out and identify potential project opportunities and develop client relationships
•Assist in preparing proposals, work plans and cost estimates

Requirements:
•Bachelor’s degree in Environmental Science, Biology or a related discipline
•5+ years of wetland delineation/evaluation/classification; environmental consulting experience preferred
•Experience in project management and performing, managing and leading field surveys, and teams
•Experience in delineating and permitting impacts to wetlands pursuant to federal, state, and local regulations
•Demonstrated knowledge of the USACE Wetland Delineation Manual and Regional Supplements
•Experience with tablet-based field data collection and Trimble hand-held GPS units
•Excellent leadership and interpersonal communication skills
•Strong organizational, analytical, and strategic planning skills with attention to detail and a high quality of work in a pressure environment
•Strong project management and technical writing skills
•Ability to elicit cooperation from a wide variety of, disciplines, and experts including senior management and clients
•Ability to travel to support business needs, walk for several miles, work in extreme temperatures, rough terrain and work independently in remote areas

Desired Qualifications:
•Possession of a Professional Wetland Scientist Certification
•Strong botanical skills
•Experience in agency (State Lands) consultation in the Midwest
•Knowledge of major federal statutes and implementing regulations (NEPA, CWA, CAA, etc.)
•Experience developing client relationships and identifying business opportunities

We are a global network of innovators and problem solvers, dedicated professionals and industry leaders in scientific, engineering, and planning disciplines working together with our clients to develop technically sound, science-based solutions to the leading environmental challenges of our time. E & E offers opportunities for growth in a team-oriented environment. Candidates must be eligible to work in the U.S.; Visa sponsorship will not be provided. Please view our website at www.ene.comto apply on-line. Local candidates preferred.

Ecology and Environment, Inc. is an EO and AA employer – M/F/Vets/Disabled/and other protected categories.

The Nicaragua Canal: Economic Opportunity or Environmental Catastrophe?

Swamp Stomp

Volume 18, Issue 24

In June of 2013, the Nicaraguan National Assembly approved of the construction of a canal to be built through Nicaragua by the Hong Kong Nicaragua Canal Development Group. The canal is expected to cost around $40 billion, provide Nicaragua with 250,000 jobs and significantly increase the national GDP. On the surface, one can understand why the government of the second poorest country in the western hemisphere, with nearly 45% of its citizens below the poverty line, may find this deal attractive. However, the canal’s construction, which has already been postponed twice, has raised concerns by conservation scientists, environmental activists, and indigenous Nicaraguans about the environmental and social impacts the canal may have on the country.

The 173-mile long canal is currently projected to bisect Nicaragua starting from the mouth of the Brito river on the Pacific coast, where it will cut through to lake Cocibolca and on eastward through the Tule and Punta Gorda rivers to the Caribbean sea. Lake Cocibolca is Central America’s largest freshwater lake and is not only Nicaragua’s primary source of fresh water, but is also home to a variety of endemic fish species as well as thousands of indigenous families who fish the lake for subsistence. Conservationists fear that the introduction of saltwater from the ocean entering the lake via the canal could disrupt the lake’s ecosystem, threatening not only its biodiversity but also the livelihoods of thousands of people. There is the additional possibility of invasive ocean species being inadvertently transported into the lake from ships passing through and wreaking havoc on endemic populations.

The canal would also cut through the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor, a reserve stretching from southern Mexico to Panama that allows endangered mammals, such as jaguars, to migrate from north to south across their native habitat. Experts at Panthera, a group of scientists dedicated to the protection of large cats, warn that such a disruption could do significant harm to the already small jaguar population (500 individuals) in Nicaragua. Perhaps the most troubling consequence of the canal would be the displacement of some 120,000 farmers and members of the indigenous Rama, Ulwa, Garifuna, and Miskitu communities that live along the canal’s proposed route. This displacement would not only unjustly confiscate land from indigenous groups that have been marginalized since Spanish colonial times, but would also threaten their unique languages and cultures, representing a net loss of human cultural diversity.

Sources:

Goldilocks Wetlands

Swamp Stomp

Volume 18 Issue 23

Based on Kepler Space Telescope data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs in the Milky Way, 11 billion of which may be orbiting stars like our own sun. These are the “Goldilocks Planets,” planets at just the right distance from its Sun to allow temperatures for liquid water. They would be not too hot and not too cold and could potentially allow life to evolve.

On Earth, it is not just the presence of liquid water that gives our planet Goldilocks status. Our orbit, the percentage of reflective surfaces, and the chemical composition of our atmosphere all contribute. The energy Earth receives from the Sun is in balance with the energy our planet loses to space.

In speaking of the “habitable” zone surrounding a star, the word is a bit misleading. Habitable for what? Life found on Earth? We don’t really know what a planet needs to harbor life. Worlds inhospitable to human life could be teeming with life we can’t even begin to understand. All we know is that for the kind of life that exists on Earth, liquid water is a necessity – at least intermittently. With current technology, we don’t have the capability to conclusively detect liquid water on the surface of any worlds outside our own solar system, so we use the temperature of the star and the distance of the planet’s orbit. Even though water can be liquid on the surface, various geophysical aspects, such as atmospheric pressure, radiation, and planet chemistry must be taken into account.

But distance isn’t everything. When it comes to the temperature on a planet’s surface, the atmosphere has an enormous effect. Too thick (think Venus), the planet is too hot. Too thin (think Mars), the thin atmosphere might cause the planet’s store of ice to sublime directly into water vapor, yet both of these planets are considered to be within the habitable zone of our sun.

So, are we going to eventually find swamps, marshes, bogs, fens, lagoons, vernal pools, and pocosins on Goldilocks planets? Wetlands are areas that must meet three important factors: hydric soils, wetland vegetation, and wetland hydrology. By that definition, we already have a good chance of finding two criteria, soils and hydrology. But life on another planet, well, that’s the big question.

Since wetlands tend to be on larger bodies of water because of their topography and used for water retention and filtration, we would be looking for more than just a trace of water or ice. Liquid water would have to be at least intermittently present for the chemical processes that are required to make most hydric soils. Natural ponds and wetlands most often occur as lowlands or depressions, so the surface of the Goldilocks planet must also be compatible with these landforms.

Would seasons be a requirement for soil/wetland production? Perhaps not if there was still a significant period of liquid water through a “Goldilocks” year. A “day” corresponds to one rotation of a planet. Could wetlands survive a constant sun-oriented model with no rotation at all, or a whirlwind of day and night caused by a fast rotation?

Life originated in our seas on Earth. Would it do the same on “Goldilocks” or would it be so different that life would develop directly on land? Would there be wetland plants just because we had water? Maybe water is not essential to our new “exo-plants”. Depending on the density of the atmosphere and specifics of the sun, radiation could be strong and constant. Would this affect the evolution of plant life, causing mutations, or premature death of the plants? Would trace elements not usually found on Earth affect growth or spread of plants? Would the chemical processes of life not work, or would they just be different?

When it comes to the organic component of soils, we need plants! The plants characteristic of ponds and wetlands include moisture-loving plants, some of which are totally submerged, partially submerged, float on the surface or favor the shoreline and commonly include algae, grasses, sedges, rushes, water lilies, and forbs. On Earth, plants can grow and prosper in a variety of mediums from water to cracks in rocks. It seems that if life were to evolve then plants should do well if our Earth is any type of example.

At some point, the Army Corps of Engineers might have to come up with a brand-new set of indicators for the new “Exoplanet Regional Supplement,” but at least for hydrology, (the study of water), the presence of water on a planet would naturally give us many of the same indicators like standing water, saturation, etc. Would we see moss trim lines or evidence of aquatic fauna though?

For soils, would there be redox features without free oxygen in the atmosphere? Where would we be without our F3 indicator! Since so many of our soil indicators are based on the presence of plant life in some form or another, A indicators might be problematic.

In all likelihood though, it seems as if indicators would be found on a Goldilocks planet. They may not be the same on earth, but they would do the job. Maybe a pristine exo-wetland might even help us develop new and better wetlands on Earth!

Now, if we can only keep Earth invasives like Phragmites and Reed Canary Grass out, we’d be golden.

References:

https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/PlantListWetland.aspx
https://sos.noaa.gov/datasets/earth-our-goldilocks-planet

https://www.coursera.org/learn/global…/the-goldilocks-planets

Cosmos 72 – Dec-Jan 2017, “‘Goldilocks’ planets might not be so nice,” issue 72, by Kate Mack https://cosmosmagazine.com/issues/parallel-worlds-science-or-sci-fi
https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/education/Pages/PlantListWetland.aspx
http://www.usace.army.mil/

NASA, Chromospheric variations in main-sequence stars, Jan. 01, 1995

E. E. Mamajek; L. A. Hillenbrand (2008). “Improved Age Estimation for Solar-Type Dwarfs Using Activity-Rotation Diagnostics”. Astrophysical Journal. 687 (2): 1264